Composition Matters...Or Does it?

Chapter six from Reading Images, written by Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen, discusses “The Meaning of Composition” in images, advertisements, television shows, and other mediums.  Kress and van Leeuween make several convincing arguments regarding the composition of images that we see on a daily basis.  I had never heard of the “rules” they advocate, and after researching a bit I found it difficult to accept their theory.

Kress and van Leeuween argue “a theory of language is no longer sufficient and must be complemented by theories which can make the principles of the new visual literacy explicit” (Kress).  They address their theories with three directives of composition.  According to the authors, “Composition…relates the representational and interactive meanings of the image to each other through three interrelated systems” (Kress):

1.  Information Value: The location of images associate them with their informational value
2. Salience: The images must draw the attention of viewers and prove their relevance
3. Framing: Including or omitting framing devices shows importance to other items nearby

In some mediums with a divide down the middle of the image, the left side of the image is the “given” and the right side is the “new.”  For instance, in this Taylor Swift feature in Seventeen Magazine, the singer is placed on the left side of the page as a familiar face, while the article and new information on the music star are on the right.

However, there are plenty of popular images that do not fit within the constraints of the authors’ rules.  Oprah, Jay Leno, Jimmy Fallon, anchors on CNN, magazine spreads in Vogue, and the like do not follow this theory.  In fact, I had a more difficult time finding images that did fit into the criteria than those that did not.  Do you think the authors’ theory is followed or merely a suggestion of how images should be compiled?  Are images that do not fit within the constraints of the theory as aesthetically pleasing to you as images that do? See below examples that defy the theory set out by Kress and van Leeuwen.

 

Vogue Magazine spread

Nike advertisement

A Culture Built on Capital

In their chapter “Viewers Make Meaning,” Sturken and Cartwright decipher how audiences uniquely analyze images they see.  They determine that images interpellate viewers and of noteworthiness is how audiences interpellate, defined as “to interrupt a procedure in order to question someone or something formally,” (50).  We, as viewers, are interpellated when viewing a commercial, advertisement, piece of artwork, or billboard.  We are forced to wonder what the purpose of the image is, how it got there, and what it should mean to us.    

Two things that all viewer interpretations involve are aesthetics and taste (56).  Aesthetics rely on one’s analysis of an image’s style or beauty, while taste is a cultural reference.  Taste can be varied among viewers depending upon one’s class, cultural background, or education.  The authors allude to this as a matter of “cultural capital” (60).  This creates a divide between highbrow cultures and lowbrow cultures.  For example, look at Andy Warhol’s “Campbell’s Soup Cans.”

The Warhol print gained notoriety among ordinary people as his art sought to shed a positive light on the novelties of common things.  In my eyes, “Campbell’s Soup Cans” represent a modern, universal message for those of a different societal class than previous artists had sought after.  The Product Marketing Manager even wrote Warhol a note expressing his gratitude and appreciation for the artist along with a case of Tomato Soup!  People could finally relate to this kind of artwork, in a way that only highbrow viewers could previously to artists such as Monet and Van Gogh.  Warhol gave cultural significance to an ordinary class of people that formerly could only dream to associate with those of higher culture!

As social subjects of culture, we are forced to view images in daily life and translate their meanings.  How do images interpellate viewers?  Where is the line drawn between interpellating the viewer and manipulating the viewer? Or are they one in the same?  How else can societal class alter how we view images?

The Beauty of Sports Photography

In the chapter “Framed and Mounted: Sport Through the Photographic Eye,” Rowe constructs an argument of how sports photography has changed the notion of aesthetics to the public eye.  He correctly asserts, “The most important object in sports photography is sport’s prime instrument, the human body,” (143).  There are some iconic photographs ingrained in our memories, such as Michael Phelps displaying his eight gold medals from the 2008 Beijing Olympics, or Brandi Chastain taking off her shirt after scoring the winning penalty kick for the United States in the 1999 World Cup.  However, the act of capturing an athlete’s body in action is one that has also been harshly criticized in recent years.

Take for example, Sports Illustrated and their yearly swimsuit edition.  The magazine which usually features athletes playing a sport, celebrating a victory, or donning a gold medal on the cover, once yearly features a female swimsuit model (frequently wearing more skin and less bikini).  The athletic publication known for football biographies, game predictions, and previews of an upcoming season dedicates an entire issue of their renowned magazine to women in swimsuits (or lack thereof).  Rowe points out an admirable piece of information to readers however, when he emphasizes that this kind of marketing for Sports Illustrated works.  “If Sports Illustrated has felt some concern about criticism of, especially, its gender politics (Davis 1997: 6-7), it has also provocatively drawn attention to this aspect of its activities,” (169).  The swimsuit edition was first published in 1964 and so long as people continue to support the magazine, it is unlikely that the magazine’s reputation will suffer (169). 

Perhaps the problem is not how people perceive the magazine models, but in fact how people perceive themselves.  We, as a society, judge ourselves in comparison to the models we see in advertisements and on the cover of magazines.  The result is a generation dedicated to doing everything in their power to have muscles like the male bodybuilder, or be as thin as the model on the runway.  Especially prevalent in females, these aspirations can cause physical and emotional damage.  So much so that Dove has created a “Dove Campaign for Real Beauty,” encouraging women to view themselves in a different light.  Check out their video below.  Their tagline: “You are more beautiful than you think,” emphasizes how critical women are of their bodies today.  Dove’s campaign builds on Foucault’s (1979) “concept of the ‘panoptcion’ (self-monitoring and self-discipline imposed by feelings constantly under surveillance) of women’s body images” (156).  So Dove set out to change the minds of women all over the nation.  Is the media to blame for an audience’s feelings?  How do you determine if photograph is moral or immoral?

Life's a Party, Dress Like It

Images are everywhere.  Literally, they surround us.  From the Ralph Lauren logo on a friend’s shirt, to the front page of the New York Times, to artwork hung on library walls, images are omnipresent in our daily lives. 

Sturken and Cartwright explain this overload of images in their chapter entitled, “Images, Power, and Politics.”  They assert, “Looking is a social practice,” something all humans are trained intuitively to do, regardless of how we feel about an image (9).  Yet images do have inherent value to us.  The authors add, “The work of detecting social, cultural, and historical meanings in images often happens without our being aware of the process and is part of the pleasure of looking at images,” (34).  We consume hundreds of images daily, and we analyze them according to our opinions on what they represent.  What factors make a person like or dislike an image?

“Conventions are like road signs,” and a company logo is a road sign pointing to their ideology (26).  Lilly Pulitzer is one such company.  Their story all began with a 21-year old woman named Lilly Pulitzer who moved to Palm Beach and started her own juice stand.  Lilly created a dress of her own to hide juice stands while working and people when wild over her fun, colorful designs.  An icon was born!    

Today, Lilly designers still aim to create the same kind of artwork that maintains the Lilly image.  The name it has made for itself is one of bright colors and fun.  People make associations to the brand based on their personal taste.  Lilly Pulitzer is every hipster’s nightmare and every preppy girl’s dream.  The brand caters to the audience that aligns with their ideology, and supports the way of life they advocate.  What other images can you think of portray a way of life for their intended audience?

To Blog and Beyond!

Blogging is now not only a hobby, but is also a talent in which people strive to make a living.  Chapter six entitled, “Blogging Brands,” denotes that blogging these days is a novel way to make money.  The reading suggests: “Ultimately, it seems, the question of whether blogging is journalism has to do with money.”  Blogging has reached an all-time high level of notoriety, especially in creating business for people in the business. 

Two things seem to matter when blogging for a brand: Truth and integrity.  Gaining the trust of readers is the name of the game.  People don’t want to feel pressured or manipulated, but want to feel that they can form their own opinions on bloggers’ suggestions and opinions.

Post Secret is one of my favorite blogs of all time. I have followed it since the Britney Spears and *NSYNC days that were middle school, making it my first blog reading experience.  It is as real and truthful as I imagine any blog could ever hope to be.  The creator, Frank Warren, decided to start an art compilation project in which he encourages people to mail their secrets on postcard to his home address.  This simple act of affixing a stamp to a secret enables people to let go of a Dirty Little Secret by mailing the inner workings of their soul   Frank Warren makes his money as a motivational speaker and author, selling books full of spilled secrets and true confessions.  The site also doubles as a suicide prevention organization for those in need of assistance.      

to a complete stranger. As a site without advertisements, how does Post Secret continue to operate?  Do you think he started Post Secret with the intention of turning the blog into a money making operation?

Bloggers with a smaller reach still maintain the equal opportunity of blogging for a brand.  Starr Struck promotes her own yoga classes, music choices, and Etsy store.  The blog succeeds as a valuable resource for women searching for a compilation of all life’s wonderful things, including her Friday posts of her selected “Simple Joys of the Week.”  In her FAQ section, she denotes her experience as a yoga teacher and student, establishing her credibility to her readers.  A multifaceted woman, the author advertises her own artwork for purchase on the site.  The many facets of this site lend itself to a blog worthy of making a living on!  Do sites with several links to advertisements, shopping sites, and other blogs overwhelm you, or interest you?

Power to the People

In the past, traditional print media lived by the antiquated quotation: “Freedom of the press is guaranteed only to those who own one,” as said by Abbott Joseph Liebling.  We have seen how today’s digital media proves that this is no longer the case. The focus of this chapter entitled “Citizen Journalists?” details how the two livelihoods intersect in the new age.

Rettberg lists three ways that blogs intersect with journalism in his chapter.  These examples include:

1. Blogs provide firsthand reports from ongoing events, such as war, natural disaster, or tragedy (e.g. live blogging)
2. Some bloggers set out to tell stories that may have already been told, but investigate deeper into the details that mainstream media may fail to address
3.  “Filterbloggers” follow mainstream media and filter stories according to their interests, carefully monitoring one issue or person

Additionally, Rettberg claims in his chapter, “Blogs rely on personal authenticity, whereas traditional journalism relies on institutional credibility.”  Traditional news sites such as CNN and Fox News must provide factual information, report in a timely manner, and uphold a common code of ethics.  Bloggers have the unique ability to remain anonymous (if they choose to do so) so long as they create a sense of trustworthiness and credibility for their readers.  Not having to please the entire nation as a blogger enables that person to write more opinionatedly and to their target audience.  However, verifiable facts are still regarded as the most important part of a blog.  If a blogger claims to be an eyewitness, people expect them to actually be one and report with as much transparency as possible.  Would you continue to read a blog if you had suspicions that they fabricated some of their stories?

In today’s society, blogs and mainstream media are inseparable.  Blogs need mainstream media in the same way that mainstream media needs blogs.  Both report on events and aim to answer the question: Can citizens also be journalists?

I believe wholeheartedly citizens can be journalists.  Take for example the student who blogged during the Virginia Tech shooting, or the soldier who blogged from Baghdad.  These ordinary people are proof of citizens capable of journalism for the greater good. However, these citizen journalists should still be held to the same standard as professional journalists.  Kovach and Rosentiel suggest five principles regarding verification of information.     

Intellectual principles of a science of reporting:

1. Never add anything that was not there
2. Never deceive the audience
3. Be transparent as possible about your methods and motives
4. Rely on your own original reporting
5. Exercise humility

Which of these principles would be the most difficult to follow?  Which do you think is most easily broken by journalists?

The Digital Public Sphere

A shift in our new media age is obvious.  What isn’t necessarily clear is how that transition occurred.  People used to cherish their black and white newspaper like a new puppy on Christmas, yet Americans today spend as little as half an hour a day reading that same newspaper.  Many communications experts, including Rettberg, attempt to explain this phenomenon as it continually impacts our society today.

Rettberg writes in chapter 2, “We have moved from a culture dominated by mass media, using one-to-many communications, to one where participatory media, using many-to-many communication, is becoming the norm.”  Our culture believes strongly in democracy as it applies to our everyday lives in that people are permitted, and often encouraged, to participate in a social conversation with others.  Walter illustrates this as a human’s second orality.  Blogs enable a constant flow of information among strangers with similar interests.  Since blogs encourage an informal tone and language akin to everyday speech.  This second orality is one that Internet users use on a daily basis, as we stretch ideas into the digital public sphere.  Does this second orality correlate with the skill set Ulmer refers to his in article on Electracy?

The Modern Public Sphere was an idea originated by Jurgen Habermas in his work The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere.  Rettberg summarizes Habermas’ Modern Public Sphere as an “ideal democratic space for rational debate among informed and engaged citizens, a space that would thus be an arena mediating between state and society.”  Last semester, I took Political Communications with Dr. Letteri and read Habermas’ work in its entirety.  Drawing on my knowledge from that course, I further understand that the best way to democracy is through critical rational debate.  Habermas explains the evolution of the public sphere from coffee houses and taverns to the bourgeois society parties.  This public sphere eventually becomes public opinion, which continues to be held in high regard today.  Digital media allow for a quicker response and a more diverse audience of bloggers and readers.  How is the modern public sphere altered by the digital world?

Rettberg’s third chapter hits on the speed of blog posting and commenting as one of its most beneficial keys to success.  The pace of which information is shared is rapid and allows for ideas to develop quickly.  However, the speed of transmitting the information does not have to be instantaneous.  For example, a friend may comment on your social media Facebook site a mere three minutes after you post an interesting article from the New York Times.  However, three weeks later another friend may find that you posted the article and have an opposing opinion.  The beauty of the Internet is not only its rapidity, but also its continuity.  Stories continue to be posted for other readers who may find interest in the article at a later date.  The visibility of social networks, such as in this example, matter to the audience.  Visibility is what gives Facebook, LinkedIn, Google+, blogs, and MySpace its fame.  They are seen by readers and can be referred back to the same page in the future.

I Blog, Therefore I Am

Headlines and Hypertext

Brian Carroll’s chapter on “Headlines and Hypertext” dedicates over thirty pages to the effective use of both these digital tools.  Specific instructions are included on how to craft an attention-grabbing headline and how to best hyperlink an article entry.  To explain what kind of information a Web writer should link, Carroll makes these suggestions:

·      Primary sources

·      Public records

·      Interview notes and excerpts

·      Related or archival stories and information

·      Definitions of terms and brief explanations

·      Multimedia

These suggestions were extremely helpful to me, as I have never been aware that there were specific “rules” for hyperlinking beyond my common sense.  From the reading, I discovered hyperlinks should be obvious and instantly recognizable.  This can be done with underlining or a different color text, so long as it is consistent throughout the post and clear to the reader.  Jeff Jarvis, a journalism professor quoted in the text, makes an excellent commandment regarding linking: “Link unto others’ good stuff as you would have them link unto your good stuff.”  Media experts have found that linking text to other related sources, even competition, emphasizes legitimacy and ultimately brings the return of readers to the original source in the future. 

Similarly, epic headlines demand their own set of rules.  Carroll suggests that well-written headlines:

·      Attract the reader’s attention

·      Summarize content

·      Help reader index that content

·      Depict mood and tone

·      Help set the tone

·      Provide typographic relief

The prevalent actor
starred in The Dark Knight
just before his death.

Additionally, headlines also help readers decide what is worth reading, and what is not.  For this purpose, it is beneficial to keep a headline simple and its keywords searchable.  For example, when an Australian newspaper wrote the headline: “Heath Ledger Dies,” some were skeptical that the title was too boring or not creative enough.  Another newspaper chose “Dead in Bed” as their headline for the actor’s death.  Although the latter headline was catchy and memorable, when readers searched for the news, the article that included Heath Ledger’s name received several more hits on Google.  The simplicity and inclusion of important facts in a headline can make all the difference in news!

Blogito, Ergo Sum

A later chapter entitled, “Blogito, Ergo Sum” essentially answers the question: What is a blog?  Carroll describes it as a “value-neutral medium or media format for publishing online.”  In that same vein, I consider blogging to be one of the most open and flexible mediums.  The saying, “The world is your oyster” can be similarly applied to the Internet and blogging.  The Internet is your oyster, and blogging is your means for arriving at your desired destination.  The benefits of blogging are limitless. Blogging enables reporters, eyewitnesses, and community members to comment on issues that matter to their lives.  However, where is the line drawn between blogging and journalism?  How does a high-quality newspaper article differ from a first-rate blog post?      

Case Study of Effective Digital Design

CNN.com Case Study

What is your first impression of the site? Think of the “3 second rule.” (pg 31)

·      Catchy, red headlines (aesthetically pleasing)

·      Breaking news at top of the site

·      Concise, to the point

How does this site establish credibility? How does it establish trust? Or does it? (pg 28-29)

·      As CNN, we acknowledge its credibility by its reputation

·      Links to other site on other web pages regarding similar topics

·      It establishes trust by its reputation.

o   However, trust may be dependent upon political ideology of the reader

o   For example, a conservative may be more apt to trust Fox News, while a liberal would be skeptical of their “Fair and Balanced” news

Authentic voice?

·      Live TV playing

·      Updates in real time with the latest news

·      Plain English; concise writing

Genuine?

·      Factual news source

Transparency?

·      Many different choices for readers (U.S., World, Politics, Travel, etc.)

·      Fulfills expectations that a reader may have

·      Easy access to articles; easy to gather info

What is the general writing style?

Biased? Objective?

·      While CNN certainly tries to make it as objective as possible, readers may argue that it is more liberal leaning than other publications.  Comparing the CNN site to Fox News’ site, CNN placed Obama on the front page, while Fox News identifies Syria as its main headline.

Does the writer IDENTIFY with his or her readers, or not? How (or why not)?

·      In a breaking news story regarding Syria, President Obama utilizes a similar situation of Iraq and Afghanistan by stating: “This is not Iraq, and this is not Afghanistan.”  CNN is wise to make this comparison to assuage its readers’ fears that more American soldiers will be put onto foreign territory.   

Does the writing style get to the point?

·      Bullets points on main pages and story highlights

·      Articles are broken into sections with sub-headings to enable for easy reading

·      Place the most important information in the first paragraph, if not the first sentence

How is it arranged? Is it arranged in reverse pyramid style?

·      Arranged in reverse pyramid style, with most important information at the top of the page or article

Is content shaped for scanning? How is the content layered? (p 32)

·      Yes, it is shaped for scanning with its paragraph breakdown and bullet points

·      Utilizes bullet points, headings and sub-headings to create layered content

Is the tone or rhythm of the site consistent throughout?

·      Yes, the tone is consistently professional, factual, and concise

How does the site use headlines?

·      Uses quotations as majority of headlines

·      Headlines and sub-headlines within all articles

·      Catchy facts

·      Picture captions for Entertainment section

How does it use links? Effectively or not?

·      Links to related stories within articles

·      Links to videos

·      Links to other web pages (increasing credibility)

·      Effective in its use

How is multimedia used? Is it distracting? How is it displayed on the site? Does the multimedia tell the same story as the text, or a different side of the story?

·      Photos are provided at top of each story, however captions on long photo slideshows make it tempting to simply read captions for main story points

·      The multimedia tells the same story as the text, just using photos instead

How does the site “package” stories? (pg 36)

·      The site packages stories effectively with use of multimedia as well as text.  Many other photos and links are accessible within the article.

How are graphics used?

Too cluttered?

Are the graphics consistent through out the site, and consistent to the brand?

Do they encourage or discourage use, and how?

·      The graphics are simply, non-distracing.

·      Minimal design enables easy navigation

·      Consistency throughout entire site, such as the color red

·      They encourage use because people would have a positive experience on the site and return for more news

Can each page stand on its own?

·      Yes, each page maintains a search bar and tabs back to the home page or to other stories

·      Breaking news bar on every page

How is the navigation? Do you get lost? Do you always know where you are? How (or why not)?

·      Difficult to get lost, easy to find what you want

·      Clicking a tabs shows the title of that section on next page

·      For example, clicking on Justice shows CNN Justice on the following page

How does the site incorporate/interact with its audience? How does it embody the social aspect of the Internet (or does it)?

·      Readers have the opportunity to comment on stories at the bottom of the page 

·      It embodies the social aspect of the Internet because it encourages public discourse and allows for a conversation on a topic

·      Readers can link a story to their personal blog or Twitter account. 

·      iReport allows readers to contribute information to CNN.

Keeping It Short and Simple

Brian Carroll’s chapter, “Digital Media Versus Analog Media” details the novel transformation our society has experienced from print media to digital media.  Our new digital media allows for interaction with the media, not merely a reading of it.  Readers can participate in digital media, comment, and contribute their own ideas into the digital public sphere.  However, Carroll considers good writing as the key to a successful Web.  Good writing from reliable sources enables readers to trust the source.  In digital media, and particularly news sites, credibility and trustworthiness are the most important factors in the source’s success.  Without credibility, what edge does the source offer its audience?  This being true, how does a news source establish credibility to their readers?  For example, what characteristics make CNN a reliable news source?

An expression coined by Marshall McLuhan, “The Medium is the Message” relays the belief that often the characteristics of the medium in which information is transmitted is more important that the information itself.  As it relates to Carroll, timeliness and brevity are two crucial characteristics within the medium that really matter.  For news sites such as Fox News and CNN, often it is the source that gets a breaking news story out first that receives the most credit, proving that when readers receive said news as an important factor.  Additionally, brevity matters to readers as well.  Jakob Nielsen reported, “Web users read about 25 percent more slowly on screen than on paper.”  This data encourages the use of concise, clear statements on digital media including tweets, headlines, and breaking news alerts.  Mantras such as “WWGD: What Would Google Do?” further promote digital media creators to write concisely on the Web.  Keeping within the constraints of how Google operates on a daily basis, Carroll suggests using key words as starting points for headlines, sub-headlines, and hyperlinks in order to grasp attention of readers.

 

Carroll devotes an entire chapter to creating an effective website through the use of screen writing tips.  One central suggestion is to write in plain English.  Since websites are often translated around the global world, it is crucial that the wording be straightforward and simply understood.  Keeping in line with the simplistic mentality, Carroll advocates for minimalistic websites in which less is more.  Since websites are created as a vehicle for information, it is important that a reader can quickly establish an identity and mission of the website, as well as provide shortcuts that quickly convey the big picture of the website creator’s ambition.  I agree with Carroll’s major points in this chapter as I imagine the websites I frequently explore.  As a reader, I enjoy simply designed and colorful websites that are easy to navigate.  Shortcuts further endorse quick and reliable Web surfing.  As an ordinary person with limited technological knowledge, I appreciate website designs that aim to make my information search quick, successful, and painless.